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Women have engaged in philosophy throughout the field's history. While there were women philosophers since ancient times, and a relatively small number were accepted as philosophers during their lives during the ancient, medieval and modern eras, particularly during the 20th and 21st century, almost no woman philosophers have entered the philosophical Western canon.〔Duran, Jane. Eight women philosophers: theory, politics, and feminism. University of Illinois Press, 2005.〕〔http://read.hipporeads.com/why-i-left-academia-philosophys-homogeneity-needs-rethinking/#〕 In ancient philosophy in the West, academic philosophy was typically the domain of male philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle, though female philosophers such as Catherine of Alexandria (C. 300 CE) theorized and wrote during this period. A notable medieval philosopher was Hypatia (5th century). Notable modern philosophers included Anne Conway (1631-1679), Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) and Sarah Margaret Fuller (1810-1850). Influential contemporary philosophers include Susanne Langer (1895–1985), Hannah Arendt (1906–1975), Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986), Mary Midgley (born 1919), Mary Warnock (born 1924), Julia Kristeva (born 1941), Patricia Churchland (born 1943) and Susan Haack (born 1945). In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began admitting women, giving rise to new generations of female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that philosophy is one of the least proportionate fields in the humanities with respect to gender.〔"Salary, Promotion, and Tenure Status of Minority and Women Faculty in U.S. Colleges and Universities."National Center for Education Statistics, Statistical Analysis Report, March 2000; U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 2000–173;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF:93). See also "Characteristics and Attitudes of Instructional Faculty and Staff in the Humanities." National Center For Education Statistics, E.D. Tabs, July 1997. U.S. Department of Education, Office of Education Research and Improvement, Report # NCES 97-973;1993 National Study of Postsecondary Faculty (NSOPF-93).〕 Women make up as little as 17% of philosophy faculty in some studies.〔U.S. Department of Education statistics in above-cited reports seem to put the number closer to 17%, but these numbers are based on data from the mid-1990s. Margaret Urban Walker's more recent article (2005) discusses the data problem and describes more recent estimates as an "(optimistically projected) 25–30 percent."〕 In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association claimed that there is gender imbalance and gender bias in the academic field of philosophy.〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕In June 2013, a US sociology professor stated that "out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total." The editors of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy have raised concerns about the underrepresentation of women philosophers, and they require editors and contributors to ensure they represent the contributions of women philosophers.〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕 According to Eugene Sun Park, "()hilosophy is predominantly white and predominantly male. This homogeneity exists in almost all aspects and at all levels of the discipline."〔 ==Representation and working climate== In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association claimed that "...there is compelling evidence" of "...philosophy’s gender imbalance" and "bias and partiality in many of its theoretical products." In 1992, the association recommended that "fifty percent of ()...positions should be filled by women.”〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕In a 2008 article “Changing the Ideology and Culture of Philosophy: Not by Reason (Alone),” MIT philosophy professor Sally Haslanger stated that the top twenty graduate programs in philosophy in the US have from 4 percent to 36 percent women faculty. 〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕In June 2013, Duke University professor of sociology Kieran Healy stated that "out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total." The editors of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy have raised concerns about the underrepresentation of women philosophers; as such, the encyclopedia “encourage() () authors, subject editors, and referees to help ensure that SEP entries do not overlook the work of women or indeed of members of underrepresented groups more generally.”〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕 In 2014, philosophy professors Neven Sesardic and Rafael De Clercq published an article entitiled "Women in Philosophy: Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis." The article states that a "...number of philosophers attribute the underrepresentation of women in philosophy largely to bias against women or some kind of wrongful discrimination". Evidence cited includes "gender disparities that increase along the path from undergraduate student to full-time faculty member"; "anecdotal accounts of discrimination in philosophy"; "research on gender bias in the evaluation of manuscripts, grants, and curricula vitae in other academic disciplines"; "psychological research on implicit bias"; "psychological research on stereotype threat" and the "...relatively small number of articles written from a feminist perspective in leading philosophy journals". 〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕Sesardic and De Clercq argue that "proponents of the discrimination hypothesis, who include distinguished philosophers ...have tended to present evidence selectively." 〔https://www.nas.org/articles/women_in_philosophy_problems_with_the_discrimination_hypothesis 〕 American philosopher Sally Haslanger stated in 2008 that "...it is very hard to find a place in philosophy that isn’t actively hostile towards women and minorities, or at least assumes that a successful philosopher should look and act like a (traditional, white) man.”〔 http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/25/philosphy-women-warnock-baggini-debate〕Haslanger states that she experienced “occasions when a woman’s status in graduate school was questioned because she was married, or had a child (or had taken time off to have a child so was returning to philosophy as a ‘mature’ student), or was in a long-distance relationship". American philosopher Martha Nussbaum, who completed a PhD in philosophy at Harvard University in 1975, alleges that she encountered a tremendous amount of discrimination during her studies at Harvard, including sexual harassment and problems getting childcare for her daughter.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Conversation with Martha C. Nussbaum, p. 1 of 6 )〕 In July 2015, British philosopher Mary Warnock addressed the issue of the representation of women in British university philosophy departments, where 25% of faculty are women. Warnock stated she is "... against intervention, by quotas or otherwise, to increase women’s chances of employment" in philosophy. 〔 http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/25/philosphy-women-warnock-baggini-debate〕 She also argues that "... there is nothing intrinsically harmful about this imbalance" and she states that she does not "...believe it shows a conscious bias against women." 〔 http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/25/philosphy-women-warnock-baggini-debate〕 Philosopher Julian Baggini states that he believes that there is "...little or no conscious discrimination against women in philosophy". At the same time, Baggini states that there may be a "...great deal of unconscious bias" against women in philosophy, because philosophy generally does not address issues of gender or ethnicity. 〔 http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jul/25/philosphy-women-warnock-baggini-debate〕 On March 28, 2011, the blog New APPS published a post examining the allegations of persistent sexual harassment faced by women professors in philosophy, due largely to "serial harassers" continuing to work in the field despite widespread knowledge of their actions. The post proposed that, since institutional procedures seemed to have been ineffective at removing or punishing harassers, philosophers should socially shun known offenders.〔(What is to be done about sexual harassment in the philosophy profession? – New APPS: Art, Politics, Philosophy, Science ). Newappsblog.com (2011-03-28). Retrieved on 2011-06-02.〕 The story was subsequently featured at ''Inside Higher Ed''〔(News: A Call to Shun ). Inside Higher Ed (2011-05-27). Retrieved on 2011-06-02.〕 and several blogs, including Gawker〔(Philosophy Departments Are Full of Sexual Harassment ). Ca.gawker.com (2011-03-30). Retrieved on 2011-06-02.〕 and Jezebel.〔Anna North, (Philosophy Profs Propose "Shunning" Sexual Harassers ), Jezebel, Mar 30, 2011〕 In 2013, a series of posts on the blog "What's it like to be a woman in philosophy?" instigated a spate of mainstream media articles on the continued dominance of men in philosophy.〔"How can we end the male domination of philosophy?" http://www.theguardian.com/education/2013/nov/26/modern-philosophy-sexism-needs-more-women〕〔What Is Philosophy's Problem With Women?: http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2013/09/09/philosophy_has_a_woman_problem_let_s_try_to_figure_out_why.html〕〔"In the Humanities, Men Dominate the Fields of Philosophy and History": http://chronicle.com/article/Men-Dominate-Philosophy-and/135306/〕〔Name Five Women In Philosophy. Bet You Can't.:http://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2013/06/17/192523112/name-ten-women-in-philosophy-bet-you-can-t〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「women in philosophy」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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